XI.

515 He attacks Orodes alone, who flees, but with the help of Surenas,

254 captures Mithridates in Babylon and puts him to death. Crassus takes advantage of this civil strife to invade Parthia.

353 Great defeat of the Romans at Carrhæ by Surenas. Orodes makes peace with Armenia. He puts Surenas to death through jealousy.

452 Unsuccessful Parthian invasion of Syria.

551 Cassius defeats the Parthians at Antigonia.

650 The satrap of Mesopotamia raises a revolt in favour of Pacorus, son of Orodes. Pacorus is recalled by Orodes and Syria is evacuated. Orodes associates Pacorus with him on the throne.

7After the battle of Philippi, Labienus, who has been sent from Rome to obtain help from Orodes, advises him to seize Syria.

840 Pacorus, Labienus, and a large army attack Syria, which falls into Parthian hands. All the Phœnician cities except Tyre submit. The Parthians appear in Palestine and the country rises against Herod and Phasael. Hyrcanus deposed and Antigonus substituted. The cities of Asia Minor except Stratonicea open their gates to Labienus.

939 Ventidius, Antony’s general, drives Labienus from Asia Minor. Capture and execution of Labienus.

1038 Complete rout of the Parthians and death of Pacorus at battle of Cyrrhestica. The Parthians evacuate Syria.

1137 Orodes, in grief at Pacorus’ loss, resigns crown to his son =Phraates IV=. He at once murders his brothers and then his father, his own son, and all possible claimants of the throne. He removes the capital to Ctesiphon. Many of the nobles flee to Antony, who plans a war against Parthia.

1236 Antony appears in Atropatene and besieges the capital. The expedition proves a failure.

1333 Rebellion against Phraates, culminating

1432 in an unknown usurper taking the throne. He is succeeded in a few months by =Tiridates II=.

1530 After battle of Actium, which draws the Roman troops from Media, and Parthia, the Parthians seize Media and Armenia and put Artaxes II on the Armenian throne. Phraates regains his kingdom for a short time. Tiridates flees to Syria, where he is protected by Octavian.

1627 Tiridates, with the help of the Arabs, surprises Phraates and compels him to flee. Phraates finally persuades the Scythians to help him and

1726 Phraates is reinstated. Tiridates flees to Augustus, carrying Phraates’ younger son with him.

1823 Augustus restores Phraates’ son to him. Civil war rages in Parthia.

1920 Augustus visits the East. Phraates, in fear, returns Roman captives and the ensigns taken from Crassus and Antony, to Augustus.

2010 Phraates sends his family to Rome in order to remove causes of civil strife, keeping only his favourite wife Urania, an Italian slave girl presented by Augustus, and her child Phraates or Phraataces.

212 About this date Urania and =Phraates V= (or =Phraataces=) murder Phraates IV. Phraataces expels Artavasdes III from Armenia and puts Tigranes IV on the throne. He also deposes Ariobarzanes II of Atropatene (Media), who was established on that throne by Augustus about 10 B.C. A line of Parthian princes succeed in Atropatene.

22A.D.

231 Augustus makes terms with Phraates, who resigns all claims on Armenia and sends his sons to Rome as hostages.

242 Phraataces marries his mother, in consequence of which

254 he is deposed and takes refuge in Rome. The Parthians bring back an exiled prince, =Orodes II=, and make him king. He proves a cruel ruler, and for this reason about

269 is murdered. The Parthians apply to Rome and receive =Vonones I=, eldest son of Phraates IV, as their king. His long residence in Rome and foreign sympathies make him unpopular in Parthia, and

2711 =Artabanus III=, an Arsacid on his mother’s side and who had been king of Media (Atropatene), is set up as a pretender. He is unsuccessful at first, but finally defeats Vonones at Ctesiphon. The latter flees and is chosen king of Armenia in 16. Tiberius persuades him to give up this throne.

2819 After death of Germanicus, Artabanus begins to treat the Romans with contempt, and places his son Arsaces on the throne of Armenia. He makes so severe a ruler that

2935 the Parthians apply to Tiberius, who finds himself compelled to interfere. He induces Pharasmanes, king of Iberia, to put forward his brother Mithridates as a claimant to the Armenian throne. War results.

3036 A widespread revolt instigated by Tiberius puts Tiridates, grandson of Phraates IV, on the throne and Artabanus flees.

3137 Artabanus comes to terms with Rome and is restored.

3240 Death of Artabanus. His son =Vardanes= succeeds, but is deposed

3341 by =Gotarzes=, chief official of Artabanus.

3442 Vardanes recovers throne, owing to Gotarzes’ cruelties. Civil war results.

3543 Vardanes captures Seleucia, and Gotarzes retires to Hyrcania.

3645 Gotarzes makes unsuccessful attempt to regain throne.

3746 Vardanes murdered while hunting. Gotarzes again takes throne.

3847 On account of Gotarzes’ misrule, the Parthians ask Claudius to give them Meherdates (Mithridates V) son of Vonones as king.

3950 Gotarzes captures Meherdates on his way to Parthia.

4051 Death of Gotarzes succeeded by =Vonones II=, formerly king of Media and probably brother of Artabanus III.

4154 Death of Vonones succeeded by his eldest son, =Vologases I=, who is the son of a concubine; but to compensate his brothers, Vologases puts Pacorus on the throne of Media and Tiridates on that of Armenia--having deposed Radamistus the usurper from the latter country. A son of Vardanes contests the throne with Vologases and apparently has the upper hand for a while.

4255 The Romans compel the Parthians to evacuate Armenia.

4358 Vologases again attacks Armenia and brings on war with Rome. Revolt of Hyrcania. Corbulo destroys Artaxarta and occupies Tigranocerta (59).

4461 Peace restored in Hyrcania.

4562 War with Rome resumed. The Romans are repulsed.

4663 Corbulo crosses the Euphrates, and the Parthians sue for peace.

4772 The Alani drive Pacorus of Media from his throne.

4875 The Alani enter Parthia. Vologases appeals in vain to Vespasian.

4978 About this date Vologases dies. He seems to have been succeeded by two kings, =Vologases II= and =Pacorus II=, probably brothers, and reigning together.

5081 =Artabanus IV= appears to be the king in this year. He protects Terentius Maximus, who pretends to be Nero. Parthia is torn with civil wars.

5193 Pacorus II is sole king.

52110 Pacorus sells the crown of Edessa to Abgar VII. Death of Pacorus. His brother (or perhaps son) =Chosroes= or =Osroes= succeeds. Vologases II reappears as a rival king, also a =Mithridates= or =Meherdates VI=. Parthia is completely upset with civil war which goes on until

53113 Chosroes wrests Armenia from King Exedares and gives it to Parthamariris, both sons of Pacorus.

54114 The emperor Trajan, indignant at Chosroes’ act, seizes Armenia and makes it a Roman province.

55115 Trajan takes Ctesiphon and Seleucia.

56116 Revolt in Parthia with Mithridates VI at its head. Death of Mithridates, and his son Sinatruces takes his place. Chosroes regains Nisibis, Seleucia, and Edessa.

57117 Trajan crowns =Parthamaspates= king of Parthia, deposing Chosroes. Death of Trajan. Hadrian withdraws Roman soldiers and Chosroes recovers throne. Parthamaspates expelled.

58130 About this date Chosroes dies and Vologases II rules as sole king. The influence of Rome preserves peace in the kingdom.

59148 Death of Vologases, aged ninety-six, having reigned seventy-one years. =Vologases III= succeeds. He continues the peace with Rome until,

60162 when, after death of Antoninus Pius, Vologases enters Armenia and expels the king. The greatest war between Rome and Parthia ensues.

61164 Aridius Cassius drives Vologases from Syria, enters Babylonia, and burns Seleucia, the most important city of the East.

62165 Great plague, originating in Parthia, spreads over the whole world.

63166 Peace with Rome. Mesopotamia becomes a Roman province. Parthia begins steadily to decline.

64191 Death of Vologases III. =Vologases IV= succeeds.

65194 Vologases permits the Medes to assist Orrhœne in revolt against the Romans.

66196 The Parthians ravage Mesopotamia.

67199 Severus surprises the Parthians and takes Seleucia, Coche, and Ctesiphon.

68201 Siege of Atra by Severus, who is compelled to raise it.

69209 Vologases succeeded by his son, =Vologases V=.

70213 His brother, =Artabanus (IV)=, appears as a claimant of the throne. Civil war.

71215 Caracalla demands the surrender of Tiridates, brother of Vologases IV, who has taken refuge with Vologases V. The latter refuses to give him up. Caracalla declares war, and the exile is delivered up. Artabanus gains the upper hand and holds Ctesiphon. Caracalla declares war on Artabanus on the latter’s refusal to give his daughter to the Roman emperor.

72216 The Romans penetrate to Arbela.

73217 On death of Caracalla an immense Parthian force invades Mesopotamia. Macrinus defeated and purchases peace.

74222 Artabanus replaces his brother over the whole of Parthia.

75224 Ardashir, the Sassanian king of Persis (or Persia), invades Parthia, taking several cities.

76227 Battle of Hormizdjan. Victory of Ardashir and death of Artabanus.

77228 Ardashir completes his conquest. End of the Parthian empire.